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Ilex aquifolium
Toxic🐾Europäische Stechpalme · (Ilex aquifolium)
Holly family (Aquifoliaceae)
Description
Glossy, spiny dark-green leaves and bright red berries make European holly one of the most familiar Christmas greenery plants — and, for the same reason, one of the most frequent causes of plant poisoning in children during the festive season. The red fruits contain triterpene saponins and the bitter principle ilicin; as few as two or three berries can cause severe vomiting in a child. Historically, dried leaves were brewed as an infusion for intermittent fever, rheumatism and even jaundice, and pressed juice was used as a drastic purgative — uses now entirely obsolete given the poisoning risk. Today the plant is better known as one of the 38 Bach flower remedies ("Holly"), traditionally associated with intense negative feelings such as jealousy or suspicion, though without scientific proof of effect. Fermented bark from young shoots was also once processed into birdlime in England's Lake District. In Germany, holly has been a protected species since 1936, so wild collecting is prohibited; if poisoning in children or pets is suspected, seek medical or veterinary help immediately.
CONTRAINDICATED during pregnancy
Triterpene saponins are uterotonic and mucosally irritant; the emetic action of the berries can trigger vomiting and dehydration. Any self-administration during pregnancy is contraindicated. Strictly avoid wild berries.
CONTRAINDICATED during breastfeeding
Due to saponin toxicity and unknown pharmacokinetics in breast milk, any internal use during lactation should be avoided. In households with breastfeeding mothers, Christmas decorations with berries should be kept out of reach of crawling infants.
CONTRAINDICATED for children
The bright-red berries of Christmas decoration are particularly attractive to small children — Ilex aquifolium is one of the most frequently reported plant poisonings in children in December. As few as 2–3 berries trigger severe vomiting. Advent wreaths, decorative picks and table arrangements with holly berries should be kept out of reach or preferably chosen without berries. If swallowed: IMMEDIATELY call poison control.
Critical drug interactions with:
Veterinärmedizin: Theobromin-empfindliche Tierarten (Hunde, Katzen, Pferde)
Historical non-medicinal use: until the 19th century, birdlime was made from fermented bark of young holly shoots in the English Lake District, used to trap small birds by sticking them to twigs. Today ethically and legally prohibited; purely ethnographic documentation. Skin contact with the birdlime paste can cause irritant-allergic reactions.
Historical documentation only — do NOT use
These internal applications are historically documented. This plant is highly toxic — self-treatment can cause severe poisoning or death. For documentation only, explicitly NOT a recommendation.
Historical use of dried holly leaves as an infusion for intermittent fever (malaria), pleurisy, catarrh and bronchitis — per Maud Grieve (1931) the tea acted as 'diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge and tonic'. Documented as a Central European household remedy for intermittent fever since the 16th century. In the Black Forest the infusion was also drunk as a tea substitute. Obsolete today — modern antipyretics and antibiotics are safer and more effective; the tea contains saponins and trace methylxanthines, making self-administration unsafe due to emesis/diarrhoea risk and confusion with berries.
Preparation & dosage
Folk-medicinal use of holly leaf infusions for chronic rheumatism and gout — the triterpenes (ursolic acid, oleanolic acid) and saponins were credited with a weak diuretic and anti-inflammatory action. In the Catalan region of Pallars the leaf tea was used folkloristically for pain relief. Obsolete today — the weak effect is disproportionate to the poisoning risk if berries are confused.
Preparation & dosage
Folk-medicinal use of pressed juice of fresh holly leaves for jaundice — Maud Grieve documents: 'The juice of the fresh leaves has been successfully used in the treatment of jaundice.' Widespread in English herbalism of the 17th–19th centuries. Not pharmacologically substantiated; obsolete today because jaundice is usually a symptom of an underlying disease requiring treatment.
Historical use of a few berries as a drastic emetic and purgative, and folk-medicinally for dropsy and 'constipation'. Maud Grieve and PFAF describe the berries as 'violently emetic and purgative'. As few as 2–3 berries cause severe vomiting in children; 5–10 cause marked poisoning symptoms. Strictly obsolete today due to high poisoning risk — pure ethnobotanical documentation.
Folk-medicinal use of root decoctions as a mild diuretic for dropsy and urinary retention. PFAF rates the diuretic action as weak and cites 'better alternatives'. Obsolete today due to unsystematic data and saponin load.
Preparation & dosage
Use as Bach flower essence 'Holly' (one of the 38 Bach remedies by Edward Bach, 1930s): recommended for intense negative emotional states such as hatred, jealousy, envy and suspicion. Mother tincture prepared from flowers by the sun or boiling method. Bach essence dilutions contain no pharmacologically active amounts — no toxic risk, but also no scientifically established efficacy. Purely documentation of traditional use.
Preparation & dosage
Sources: [4]
TOXIC — ESPECIALLY BERRIES AND SEED STONES. Ilex aquifolium is one of the most frequent household poisoning plants at Christmas because branch decorations carry berries. The red berries contain triterpene saponins, ilicin and traces of methylated xanthines (theobromine-related compounds). Symptoms after ingestion: nausea, severe vomiting, cramping abdominal pain, diarrhoea (partly bloody), drowsiness and 'stupor' in children; older literature also describes cardiac arrhythmias, paralysis-like symptoms and kidney damage. Berry dose thresholds from the toxicological literature: in children, as few as 2–3 berries are symptomatic, 5–10 cause marked poisoning, 20+ are potentially serious. The seed stones are especially risky because they carry the entire saponin mixture in concentrated form and are not digested. Current BfR / Wikipedia-DE assessment: 'rated as mildly toxic' — applies only to adults and small berry quantities; for children and pets still to be treated as toxic. The spiny leaves are less acutely toxic but inedible — risk of mouth injury from the sharp leaf spines. In suspected poisoning: contact poison control. Therapy is symptomatic (activated charcoal, fluid replacement). For pets, always see a veterinarian immediately: dogs respond with vomiting, diarrhoea, tremor and hypersalivation; cats similarly, often more severely due to lower body mass; horses respond with colic. The plant has been legally protected in Germany since 1936 (Federal Species Protection Ordinance) — wild collection in nature is prohibited. ASPCA classification (accessed 2026-08-10): toxic to dogs and cats.
Triterpene saponins are uterotonic and mucosally irritant; the emetic action of the berries can trigger vomiting and dehydration. Any self-administration during pregnancy is contraindicated. Strictly avoid wild berries.
Due to saponin toxicity and unknown pharmacokinetics in breast milk, any internal use during lactation should be avoided. In households with breastfeeding mothers, Christmas decorations with berries should be kept out of reach of crawling infants.
The bright-red berries of Christmas decoration are particularly attractive to small children — Ilex aquifolium is one of the most frequently reported plant poisonings in children in December. As few as 2–3 berries trigger severe vomiting. Advent wreaths, decorative picks and table arrangements with holly berries should be kept out of reach or preferably chosen without berries. If swallowed: IMMEDIATELY call poison control.
Drug interactions
Saponin-haltige Phytopharmaka (Süssholz, Hedera-Efeu, Quillaja) und Saponin-haltige Lebensmittel
Additive mucosal irritation and additive emetic effect; combined high saponin load can lead to severe gastrointestinal complaints and increased absorption across damaged mucosa.
Diuretika (Schleifendiuretika, Thiazide)
Holly preparations are weakly diuretic and promote GI fluid loss; with concurrent diuretic therapy the risk of hypovolaemia, hyponatraemia and hypokalaemia rises.
Methylxanthine-Stimulantien (Theophyllin, Coffein-Tabletten, hohe Kaffee-/Mate-Mengen)
Leaves and berries contain trace amounts of theobromine and related methylated xanthines; with concurrent intake of other methylxanthines, additive effects (tachycardia, restlessness, sleep disturbance) are possible. Theoretical risk, clinically insignificant at normal exposure.
Veterinärmedizin: Theobromin-empfindliche Tierarten (Hunde, Katzen, Pferde)
Dogs and cats metabolise methylated xanthines markedly more slowly than humans; even though the theobromine content of Ilex aquifolium is low, the load adds to other theobromine sources (chocolate, cocoa). Clinically, however, saponin toxicity dominates (vomiting, diarrhoea, tremor). Keep berries completely away from pet areas.
Contraindications
- Any self-administration of berries or seed-stone-containing preparations — due to saponin concentration and poisoning risk
- Existing gastrointestinal disorders (gastritis, ulcer, irritable bowel) — saponins are mucosa-irritant and can acutely worsen symptoms
- Renal insufficiency — delayed elimination of saponins and potential direct nephrotoxicity at higher berry doses
- Pets in the household — especially dogs, cats, birds, small mammals; keep berry decorations out of reach
- Pregnancy, lactation, children and adolescents (see above)
Harvested part: red berries
- Time of day:
- Morning hours on dry days before noon — leaves retain triterpene and wax content; collect only fresh, unwilted leaves without berry attachments. In Germany and Austria, do not harvest from the wild due to protection laws — only from one's own garden or horticultural source.
- Drying:
- Dry leaves in shade at max. 40 °C; the spines on the leaf margin remain dangerous even after drying (mouth and throat injury). Wear protective gloves.
- Time of day:
- Ripe red berries from October to December — especially on female plants, since Ilex aquifolium is dioecious and only female specimens bear berries. Berries persist on the twigs well into winter, hence the Christian-symbolic use at Christmas. NO harvest for food or home-remedy use — only as decoration and under strict child-proofing.
- Drying:
- Berries are NOT dried for decoration but used on fresh twigs; berries shrink in warm indoor rooms but remain toxic. After decoration use, compost or dispose with household waste — do not throw into bird-feeding or wildlife stations.
- Triterpensaponine (Saponin-Gemisch)SaponinContent: nicht quantifiziert
Main active and toxic principle class in berries and leaves. Triterpene saponins irritate the GI mucosa, trigger vomiting and diarrhoea and can damage erythrocyte membranes at higher concentrations (haemolytic effect). The emetic-purgative action of the berries rests mainly on this saponin mixture.
- IlicinBitterContent: nicht quantifiziert
Bitter principle responsible for the harsh taste of unripe berries; intensity decreases after frost. In older literature discussed as the main carrier of the 'tonic' action of holly tea; chemically not unambiguously identified, presumably a triterpene glycoside.
- UrsolsäureOtherContent: nicht quantifiziert
Pentacyclic triterpene in leaf cuticle and wax layer; antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and weakly antimicrobial properties in in-vitro studies. Contributes to the weak anti-rheumatic folk use. Pharmacologically studied in isolation (also from sage, rosemary), not specifically from holly.
- OleanolsäureOtherContent: nicht quantifiziert
Pentacyclic triterpene in leaves; chemical isomer of ursolic acid with similar antioxidant and anti-inflammatory in-vitro properties. Contributes to the plant's triterpene profile.
- Theobromin (und verwandte Methylxanthine)AlkaloidContent: Spuren
Trace amounts of methylated xanthines are described within the genus Ilex — markedly enriched in Ilex paraguariensis (mate), Ilex guayusa and Ilex vomitoria, only in traces in Ilex aquifolium. Dogs and cats metabolise theobromine slowly — therefore veterinary-toxicologically relevant, but clinically insignificant in humans.
- Coffeesäure (Caffeic acid)Phenolic acidContent: nicht quantifiziert
Phenolic acid in berries and leaves, described in phytochemical publications on the genus Ilex. Contributes to the antioxidant profile but has no practical toxicological significance.
- Ilixanthin (gelbes Pigment)FlavonoidContent: nicht quantifiziert
Yellow-orange pigment in the berries, mentioned in the Wikipedia source; flavonoid-like structure. Not specifically studied pharmacologically, contributes to berry colouration.
- Rutin und weitere Flavonoid-GlykosideFlavonoidContent: nicht quantifiziert
Companion flavonoids in leaves and berries; antioxidant activity in vitro. Contribute to the general flavonoid profile but are of no toxicological significance.
- [6]MonographASPCA Animal Poison Control — English Holly (Ilex aquifolium)(accessed: 2026-08-10)
- [4]BookPlants For A Future — Ilex aquifolium(accessed: 2026-05-26)
- [5]BookMaud Grieve: A Modern Herbal — Holly (botanical.com, 1931)(accessed: 2026-05-26)
- [1]WikipediaEuropäische Stechpalme — Wikipedia (DE)(accessed: 2026-05-26)
- [2]WikipediaIlex aquifolium — Wikipedia (EN)(accessed: 2026-05-26)
- [3]WikipediaTheobromine — Wikipedia (EN)(accessed: 2026-05-26)